Principles of Fairness in Taxation

Principles of Fairness in Taxation Is it true to say that some forms of taxation are fairer than others? How might the present taxation system in the UK be improved to make it fairer? Ideas about the fairness of systems of taxation will always be subjective. Whilst wanting to enjoy the protection of the state and other benefits that taxation can provide, few citizens will be as keen to pay their taxes. There is little argument against the principle that taxes should be paid – the more difficult question is what constitutes a fair tax system? Adam Smith was one of the first economists to try and address the issue. He devised four principles for a fair tax system: that citizens ought to make a financial contribution to the state according to their own income and ability to do so; that taxes should be certain rather than arbitrary; that the collection of taxes should be done at a time and in a manner that is convenient for the taxpayer and; that taxes should be kept as low as possible and involve as little time and expense to the taxpayer as is possible. In a more modern setting, Smith’s principles can be summarised as equity, certainty, convenience and efficiency.[1] Equity of taxes is perhaps the most important of the principles. The Poll tax protests of the early 90s show what public reaction can be like if a tax is widely believed to be unfair and the Council Tax in place today continues to court controversy. The tax forces people on low incomes to pay out up to thousands of pounds a year in tax, with rates often dictated by central government. It is also unfair as the levels of council tax can vary greatly according to the efficiency of their local council. People on the same income living in different areas of the country can have vastly different council tax bills, with no great difference in the quality of their local services. Again, it appears to be the poorest that suffer – the poorest in the UJ pay four times as much as the rich as a proportion of income.[2] A contrary argument in respect of council tax however is that taxation should be agreed more at a local level when possible. 96% of taxes in the UK are levied centrally [3] More flexibility for local councils and the involvement of local people into taxation and spending decisions could help ensure that local needs are better met. Central Government cannot always make the correct local decisions and communities need to have the capacity to respond to local issues. There is certainly evidence that the UK tax system as whole is unfair and weighted so that the poor have a proportionately larger tax burden than the rich. Looking at all taxes paid, the poorest 20% of the UK population pay 42% of their income in taxes as opposed to 34% paid by the richest 20%.[4] The administration of a tax system should also be fair and efficient. Whilst self-assessment in the UK has helped improve this to some extent, a large part of the administrative tax burden in the UK is still with the taxpayer and this is unfair. Also, with a complex tax system, administration becomes even more expensive with small businesses in particular having to find funds for tax experts to conduct their tax affairs. Fair taxation also entails that citizens have a good understanding of the taxes that they have to pay and that the legislation for taxation is clearly defined. Poorly written legislation will always be open to misinterpretation and accusations of unfairness. Some taxes in the UK, such as corporation tax or VAT are often misinterpreted and this can again be seen as unfair on those who pay more simply because they do not have their own tax expert to make the most of the legislation for them. The confusion amongst UK taxpayers as to how and when they pay their taxes is clearly a weakness in the system. A summary of the principle taxes collected in the UK is required in assessing the fairness of the UK’s system. There are three types of tax base within the UK system; income which includes income tax and corporation tax; wealth capital which includes capital gains, inheritance tax and stamp duty and; expenditure which includes value added tax and excise duties. The income tax base that includes personal income tax and corporation tax is the tax that provides the most revenue. Total tax receipts for 2005/06 were an estimated  £483 billion and income tax provided 28.1% of this income.[5] There are however arguments that current levels of personal taxation are unfair. The Tax Reform Commission for example suggests that the basic rate of income tax should be set at 20%, that the personal allowance should be increased to  £7185 and that the 10% rate should be abolished altogether, something that would see 2.5 million of the lowest paid people stop paying income tax altogether. [6] Some personal allowances within the income tax system do already help in terms of equity – for example those over 65 have a personal allowance of  £7090 before tax compared to a £4895 allowance for those under 65. What is clear however is that the current levels of personal taxation against the lowest paid in the UK seem inappropriately high and should be reconsidered. National Insurance is a further example of this. Like income tax it is a direct tax on earnings yet different in that that it is linked to certain social security benefits. In practice however there is little relation between National Insurance payments made and benefits received for many individual contributors. There are a number of failures in the UK’s personal taxation in terms of fairness and it is the least well off that suffer Including income tax, NI contributions and loss of tax credits, somebody working 30 hours a week on the minimum wage can pay a marginal tax rate of up to 70%, plus the likelihood of further penalties through the loss of means tested benefits.[7] The marginal tax rate is much noticeably lower for those with a higher income,. There are certainly reforms that could improve and make fairer the current personal tax system. Reduced personal taxation, increased personal allowances and a reduction of the basic rate to 20% would help with this. The abolition of tax-free employee benefits and allowances would also simplify the system and a merging of income tax and National Insurance should be considered. Capital gains tax is the primary tax collected within the wealth tax base. It is a tax levied on gains made from the disposal of assets by individuals. The timing of this tax allows planning by the taxpayer who can prevent the accruing of excess liabilities – in this respect the tax meets the requirements of certainty. It had generally been seen as one of the fairer taxes from when indexation allowance was introduced in 1965 yet this can be questioned in more recent years since the indexation allowance was abolished and taper relief. Introduced. The timing of capital gains tax is also relatively fair in that it allows taxpayers to plan their returns to prevent excess liabilities being accrued. Inheritance tax is the other principle capital tax. This is seen as an unfair tax by many of the middle classes who see it as an unjust tax on properties and savings that their parents have left for them. Inheritance tax brings in substantial funds for HM Treasury with an estimated yield of  £3.3 billion[8] , yet a fairer system suggested by the Tax Reform Commission would be a shorter term capital gains tax on death excluding the family home – for many citizens liable for inheritance tax, the inclusion of property in this tax is seen as the most unfair aspect. Finally, there is scope for making business taxes in the UK fairer and more appealing to investors. The current tax rate of 19% for small companies is fairly low in comparison to international standards, yet in other areas such as relief on capital expenditure, rules on inward investment and taxation of overseas profits, UK taxes are less attractive to overseas investment. Changes to aspects of business taxes would help small businesses in particular and seem fairer to those who pay them. The complexity of business tax is also seen as unfair by many small businesses. It increases the cost of running a business the administrative burden of tax regulation on UJ businesses currently runs at  £5.1 billion, equating to 0.5% of GDP. [9] The fairness of taxation systems is a contentious issue. Some systems of taxation will always appear fairer than others, yet this will largely depend on who is paying them and the financial position of the individual. In the UK today, the burden on the lowest paid initially seems unfair, yet the richest in society will argue that a higher tax on their wealth is a disincentive to enterprise. The middle classes will see something like inheritance tax as unfair, whilst the poorest will see it as perfectly reasonable. A lower overall tax burden for UK citizens is desirable and lower tax margins for the poorest would undoubtedly make the system fairer. More radical proposals such as the introduction of a much more simplified flat tax have been mooted, yet it is improbable that such a system could meet the demand for public expenditure in the UK today. The basic principles of Adam Smith should still apply to the system of taxation in the UK today. Taxes should be fair, certain, convenient and efficient and whilst the UK system does not fully meet those criteria at present, tax reform should continue to work towards this standard. References Adam S Browne J, A Survey of the UK Tax System, Institute for Fiscal Studies Briefing Note, BN09, March 2006 Lymer A, Oats L Hancock D, Taxation Policy and Practice, Accounting Education Ltd, Birmingham, 2003. May J King M, The British Tax System, Oxford University Press, New York 1990 Tax Reform Commission, Tax Matters – Reforming the Tax System, institute for Fiscal Studies Publication 2006 http://www.libdems.org.uk/community/issues/counciltax.html 1 Footnotes [1] p2 Ch 2, Lymer, Oats Hancock, Taxation Policy and Practice, Accounting Education Ltd, Birmingham, 2003 [2] www.libdems.org.uk [3] (Stoker Gary, Councils need more taxation freedoms, p22 The Guardian July 3 2001). [4] www.libdems.org.uk [5] p3 Adam Browne, A Survey of the UK Tax System, Institute for Fiscal Studies Briefing Note, BN09, March 2006) [6] p7 Tax Matters 2006 [7] p57 Tax Matters 2006 [8] p17 Adam and Browne 2006 [9] p21 Tax Matters 2006.

Johnson and Johnson Analysis Essay

Executive Summary This report was carried out in order to show the scenario planning of Johnson and Johnson .The report provides information about the history of the company, countries of operations and the sectors of operations .The company sales have seen significant growth in recent years and US have the highest percentage of sales of about 44% .The report also draws attention to the PESTEL framework of the pharmaceutical industry showing how Political ,Economical, Social ,Technological, Environmental ,and Legal factors affects companies operating in this industry .Johnson and Johnson have contributed to the environment and also helps in improving living in the society through providing of valuable drugs to cure several diseases and having good cooperate social responsibility. The SWOT Analysis of Johnson and Johnson shows that the company is one of the top players in the industry and has a lot of potential for further growth due to financial strength and experiences. The company sales has increased worldwide allowing for its expansion in more countries and they carry out further research and development on new products. Johnson and Johnson research and development is helping to identify new opportunities which in turns help in complimenting company strength .Several ranges of opportunities are available for the company and the breakthrough in technology and innovations has allowed for new products and services to be available for consumers. Further investigations shows the Porter five forces where threat of new entrant for the pharmaceutical industry is low and posses low threat to Johnson and Johnson as the company is already established and have a good number of customers around the world .The bargaining powers of buyers and suppliers , rivalry among competitors and threats of substitute are also discussed . The company is recognized as the 6th largest in the world for consumer health and the world largest providers of diverse medical diagnosti c devices, It is recommended that Johnson and Johnson reach out to more people around the world and focus on the rural areas to be able to help solve more deadly diseases in the world hence improving their cooperate social responsibilities. Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction Johnson and Johnson founded in 1886 is a United States multinational company which specializes in medical devices and diagnostics, Pharmaceuticals and consumer products. The companies headquartered in New Brunswick, New Jersey have around 250 subsidiaries companies and operations in over 59 countries. Johnson and Johnson balance their short time and long time goals in their strategic planning by focusing on the important sector and fundamentals of the pharmaceutical business. They invest heavily in research and development and unveils new business opportunities .The company also focus on environment ,employees wellbeing and safety precautions to ensure they conduct business in an ethical manner. The company is included in the Fortune 500 companies and they help in improving quality of life in the world by researching on health care products which will help cure several dangerous diseases in the world. Their researchers are also committed with working with mothers to ensure they provide product that best meet the healthcare needs of mothers. The report include information about the history of Johnson and Johnson ,the PESTEL analysis of the pharmaceutical sector ,the SWOT analysis of the Johnson and Johnson and the Porter five forces which affects the level of competition in the pha rmaceutical industry . A conclusion and recommendation was also provided in the report. 2.0 Background of Johnson and Johnson The history of Johnson and Johnson dates back to 1886 which was founded by three brothers on the idea of using sterile suture alongside bandages to treat wounds. Since its inception it has grown to be one the most comprehensive manufacturer of health care products and also a well-established provider for the pharmaceutical market. The company is headquartered in New Brunswick, New Jersey with around 250 subsidiaries companies and operations in over 59 countries and over 120,000 employees, the company products are sold in over 165 countries. Barron magazine in 2008 ranked Johnson and Johnson the world most respected company and in 2011 they  recorded worldwide sales of $65 billion. (Johnson & Johnson 2012) Johnson and Johnson business are in three segments which are Pharmaceuticals, Medical devices and Diagnostics, and Consumer products. The current chairman of the company is Alex Gorsky he took over from William Weldon in 2012. Pharmaceutical segment produces several medicines which helps cure most of the world most dangerous and widespread diseases products under this category include anti-infective, dermatology, neurology , pain management anti-psychotic and several other products ,the products are usually distributed directly to retailers ,and hospitals and health care professionals for prescription to patients. Johnson and Johnson is committed to help people have healthier lives and live longer by contributing to research of deadly diseases and finding possible cure for them ,Johnson and Johnson invested about $5.1 billion in 2011 for pharmaceutical research and development of new medicines. In 2013 the pharmaceutical segment contributed about 39% to the company annual revenue. The company consumer health segment include products like baby care ,skin care, oral care women health care ,wound care as well as wellness and nutritional products . The products are readily available across several distributors stores, pharmacy and retails outlet. In 2013 the consumer health segment contributed 21% to the company total revenue. While the Medical devices segment produces varieties of innovative products which are primarily used by health care professionals in several fields which include diagnostics ,vision care ,surgery ,diabetes treatment ,sports medicine and other products . The products are distributed to wholesalers, retailers, pharmacy, and hospitals. In 2013 the Medical devices and Diagnostics contributed 40% to the company total revenue. Johnson and Johnson sales have seen significant increase in recent years with sales of 29.5 billion in 2010 and 31 billion to international market making total sales of 61 billion. In 2011 sales of 28 billion to United States and 36 billion to international market making a total of 65 billion for the year and sales of 29, billion to US in 2012 and 37 billion to international market making total sales of 67 billion in 2012. This shows Johnson and Johnson products are doing well both in the United States and in the international market. Figure 2.0 Johnson and Johnson sales by Geographical Region Adapted from http://www.slideshare.net/mortress/johnson-johnson-27883863 on May 2 ,2014. The figure above represent the percentage of sales by the geographical area with US having the highest percentage of sales and Asia -Pacific and Africa 25 % ,Europe 20 % and Western hemisphere 11 %. Johnson and Johnson was ranked in Newsweek Green Rankings as the third in United States among large companies that ensure environmental friendly operations. Examples include reduction in water use and wastage also increase in company transparency. They are member of national Green power partnership and a report published on the company website shows how the company intends to reduce waste usage and disposal also introducing several new sustainable products which are eco friendly in year 2015. 3.0 PESTEL Framework of Pharmaceutical Industry PESTEL analysis is a comprehensive useful and structured tool which help significantly in analyzing the Political, Economic, Social ,Technological, Environmental and legal external factor affecting an industry. It is very useful to identify external factors which is likely to impact future strategies (Barry, 2010) . it also effective for business planning ,marketing and product development by helping to understand market growth, business potential and directions of business operations. The pharmaceutical industry has a number of challenges this challenges can be clearly identified using the PESTEL analysis hence allowing for proper strategies to be undertaken. 3.1 Political Factors The Pharmaceutical industry has seen several increases in political attention of recent years. This is due to the role health care plays and its economic importance. Political interest affects the overall health care sector making the pharmaceutical companies to lobby with government in many of their activities .The challenges of the companies to provide affordable medicines and right to make profits comes along side economic hardships. Pharmaceutical companies must be able to respond actively to shift in government policies and should adhere to trends of ethics, compliance and  accountability in order to be successful in the market (Bennett, 1998). Health has become expensive and several debates on health care like the US Medicare debate and UK National Health Service debate are aimed to ensure health care are affordable and not financial burden. The regulations of pharmaceutical companies around the world has become more stringent increasing the cost of doing business in the indu stry, Johnson and Johnson operates worldwide and they must keep updated of the political situation which may affect their operation of in all country they have operations. 3.2 Economic Factors The pharmaceutical industries has seen a lot of mergers and acquisition of recent years the acquisitions has helped in providing availability of new products and comprehensive database of pharmaceutical products. Most of the companies are funded through cash flow and banks loans and some through the sales of shares and securities .Even with the global economic crises the money spent on health care still continue to increase. Pharmaceutical companies operating internationally should be aware of the currency problem they may face for example when the Ireland switched to euro it cause a lot of difficulties such as accounting and it takes a lot of time for it to be convenient . The pharmaceutical industries should be able to predict the economic challenges they are likely to face and ensure they use all opportunity for growth when they have it. 3.3 Social Factors Most Companies around the world integrate both social and environmental factors in their business operations and also in dealing with their stake holders which is a concept of cooperate social responsibilities. Pharmaceutical companies have contributed a lot to the health care system and have produce a lot of products which help in curing dangerous and harmful disease. Pfizer produces liptor which helps significantly in controlling cholesterol and is usually prescribed for diabetes. The industry should be able to scan the problem of obesity among children and be able to control through providing sufficient health care to fight it .The industry must be able to swiftly respond to changes in the environment and should adhere to ethical and corporate philanthropy so that the society can benefit from  their operations. 3.4 Technological Factors The increase in technological research has seen many development in the pharmaceutical industries this force the top players in the industry to adopt this innovation and invest spending on research and development to encourage innovation in the sector. Modern technology have changed the way most pharmaceutical companies operate and they have to keep updated to the change in technology in order to provide the best solutions to customer problem .The advance in technology has created several new business and service which include social media health care ,customized treatments and other services 3.5 Environmental Factors Stake holders of pharmaceutical industries are now becoming more aware of the need for the companies to be proactive in environmental agenda .The business operation should be linked one way or the other to issues concerning environment. There are several opportunities in ensuring companies incorporate environmental issues into their cooperate social responsibilities hence allowing for development of new product which are eco friendly and cater for the need of the environment. Elder generation consumes more drugs than the young ones which is a cause of concern and most companies put more emphasis for drugs research on elderly patients above 65 years. (Johnson and Johnson, 2008) The society deserve to have access to good health care services and the industry should play a vital role in ensuring research for drugs that are eco friendly and best meet customer demands. 3. 6 Legal Factors Companies operating in the pharmaceutical industries have a lot restriction and must ensure they comply with the regulatory and legislative standards. The breakthrough in internet is also changing the legislative boundaries as more people demand for rights of better and affordable healthcare .In many developing countries the social environment and political factors influences the decisions pharmaceutical companies make in providing health care and drugs .Several regulatory bodies check for food and drugs in the market and (F.D.A) food and drug administration conducts product testing labeling and other related operation in verifying drugs and food. They charge some fees  in submission and review of application .Also the Irish medicine board has power over Trinity Biotech in regulating the market of introducing new products into America. (Trinity Biotech, 2008) The legal changes in a county can affect the industry positively or negatively, it is the duty of companies operating in thi s industry to keep up to date with legal changes as they occur in the country. 4.0 SWOT Analysis. 4.1 Strength Johnson and Johnson has built a strong brand image since its inception in1886 and have helped significantly in solving several health problems by providing drugs that solve illness and diseases. The company offers a range of diversified products which cut across baby cares surgical products, pharmaceutical products, internet publishing women sanitary and several more and have built a wide range of customer loyalty. The companies have significant sales and sufficient marketing strategies allowing it to be one of the top players in the world in provision of health care products. Johnson and Johnson have about 29,950 internet domains and conduct business globally allowing for global sales of their product and hence differentiating them from competitors. The company supports environmental awareness and work on several programs such as introduction of Health future 2015 which is aimed at allowing the society to be more health cautious. Johnson and Johnson has operations in more than sixty(60) countries and have about 275 subsidiaries companies hence allowing for a comprehensive economies of scale and strong customer database. 4.2 Weaknesses Johnson and Johnson faces several pressures globally to reduces prices of products and preserves expirations of copyrights .The company spend a lot of time ,money and resources on research and sourcing for information. Diversification is also a weakness for Johnson and Johnson as they spend more money trying to grow other sector of their business which they could  invest more resources on the highly profitable sector. Competitors such as Pfizer and Abbott laboratories are becoming more specialized than Johnson & Johnson concentrating more on pharmaceutical product and having a big market share in the sector. A subsidiary of Johnson and Johnson recalled 43 over the counter children medicines which include Benadryl, Tylenol because it was revealed by US that some of the products do not meet the specifications. Johnson & Johnson also recalled Auricular surface replacement in 2010 due to failed prostheses rate increase. 4.3 Opportunities Johnson and Johnson can grow significantly since it’s an established brand in the market by concentrating on more ranges of product for economy class and improving presence in rural communities which will help see company growth also it has a lot of opportunities to improve on the market share by focusing on technological innovations and product development . Acquisition of customer health unit of Pfizer is also a major boost for Johnson and Johnson which will help develop the pharmaceutical sector also acquisition of other related pharmaceutical companies will make Johnson and Johnson strengthen its capacity and be able to cover more countries around the globe. (MoneyNews.com) Johnson and Johnson research is improving and they made a breakthrough research in cancer therapy. Zytiga has captured about 30% prostate cancer market in the United States and saw a sales growth of 70% globally as a result of strong share and market growth. 4.4 Threats Strong competition from pricing pressure and global currency fluctuation is a threat to Johnson and Johnson, despite having a strong portfolio of medical devices and diagnostics it is facing a serious pricing pressure for instance the segment growth is only about 0.5% .Other forms of threats to Johnson and Johnson is the brand image weakness due to the recalls of drug by Johnson and Johnson from the market. The currency risk of doing global business has a negative impact and intentional pharmaceutical sales reduced by 2% due to the movements in currency. Competition risks is a serious problem for Johnson and Johnson and they face risk of losing patent for their best selling drugs in few years to come for instance their drug Remicade which generated about 6.2 billion in revenues for the company in 2012 will lose its Europe patent in 2015. This may cause their pharmaceutical sales to reduce due to several competitions from other lower priced drugs companies. 5.0 Porter Five Forces In the pharmaceutical industry there are several companies with varying interest. Innovation in the industry is one of the main factors driving growth and economic success .The comprehensive positioning of a company is important as the society is well networked and consumers are continuously exposed to several new products, marketing campaigns which may confuse the consumer on which product to get or which pharmaceutical company is best to patronize. Companies in this industry should ensure their messages are direct, simple and supports customers’ needs. Attention should be focused on the customers and competitors in order to make the company attain a valuable position in the market (Jobber, 2006) A company must ensure the follow this criteria to successfully position themselves in the market this criteria include consistency, credibility ,clarity and competitiveness. Figure 5.0 Porter Five Forces Adapted from http://www.scribd.com/doc/63026751/PESTEL-Analysis on May 2 ,2014. 5.1 Threat of New Entrant Threats of new competition is quite low in the pharmaceutical industry ,the high cost associated with research and development of drugs serve as barrier to allow new companies to easily join this industry. Government regulation of medicines and drug related products is also a major head ache for companies trying to enter the business. The threat of new entrant will not influence Johnson and Johnson because it has developed to be one of the biggest pharmaceutical company having operations around the world and have the finances, customer loyalty and experience to expand its market and carry out new product research. New entrant will face several problem including problem of expenses, research and development, government restriction and regulations hence letting for only few or no new entrant into the industry. 5.2 Degree of rivalry among existing firms The competition in the pharmaceutical industry is very high and many companies tend to come out with drugs and product which are more effective than the competitors. The main competitors in this industry are in private and public sector where competition is based on the reliability of products, pricing and also customer service. Mergers and acquisition began in the last century this are due to the threat of company patent expiration. Evidence shows that sales decrease significantly as a result of many companies producing similar product. (American Economic, 2006) Competition among rivals is not likely to have high impact on Johnson and Johnson, although the demand of medical supplies increases but the prices still remain stable so the competition in prices is not much. Johnson and Johnson also have several sectors which the company focuses on hence creating a wide range on several opportunities and allowing them to have added advantages over other competitors. 5.3 Bargaining Power of buyers The increase in price of drugs have made patients to lose their bargaining power and consumer have no choices but to but the drugs prescribe to them by the doctors. The buyers of pharmaceutical products are all in different places and they have no power to influences the pricing of the products. When drugs are patented companies may set prices to include high profits but as soon as the generic versions are available buyers then have more bargaining power. Most buyers tend to switch to generic products that are more affordable and provide related functions. 5.4 Bargaining power of suppliers The bargaining power for pharmaceutical industry is low due to sales of product mostly concentrates on the top players allowing for a low bargaining power for suppliers. Johnson and Johnson use a standardized manner in choosing suppliers for different categories of their product which include the medical devices and diagnostics, Pharmaceuticals and other products.  Although the suppliers have little or no power in bargaining the prices of the product, they may influence the prices for the market in a particular country. 5. 5 Threats of Substitute The demand for substitute product in this industry is on increase the demand for generic product is high because the brand name products are expensive .The generic drugs companies have little cost associated with research and development allow them to be able to provide similar drugs at much cheaper rate. The threat of substitute for Johnson and Johnson is high due to the availability of traditional medicinal herbs and also other related generic product which claims to do the same function as most of the branded product for Johnson and Johnson. Some of the traditional medicines are even more expensive and customers tend to believe the branded product due to the fact that they may get compensated when they face any problem using the products. 6.0 Conclusion and Recommendation Johnson and Johnson is an established company with a good research and development team The company also have enough finances to take care of daily operation and with global presence around the world they revise their vision in order to increase their products and services to customers. Their strategy also involve identifying the problem people face globally in the world and trying to provide solution to them hence helping in improving the way of life in the society. Johnson and Johnson have built a reputable brand in the world and it is recommended they go deep down into the rural areas and poor countries to improve way of living. Provide free vaccination for children and help in providing affordable drugs to people that cannot afford mostly the under developed countries. Also it is recommended they help in making awareness of protecting the environment. They should concentrate more on the segment that provide most profit for the organization and not waste time trying to develop segment which does not bring much profit to the organization. This will allow for further research and development of the sector most especially the pharmaceutical segment of their operations. 7.0 Referencing Alex (2013). Johnson and Johnson SWOT & PESTEL analysis .Retrieved online from http://anelecka.blogspot.com/2013/01/johnson-johnson-1.html.Accessed May 25,2014. American Economist (2006) Global competition and the Pharmaceutical Industry in theUnited States Retrieved from http://www.allbusiness.com/government/4062804-1.html Accessed on 22nd May 2014. Barron Magazine The Market’s Finest, by Michael Santoli, Barron’s Magazine, September 2008. Dhruv, M (2003). Factors affecting Phamaceutical industry strategically Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/mortress/johnson-johnson-27883863 on May 2 ,2014. Implementation. Oxford: EG Books, Elsevierp.13 Jobber, D.,Fahy, J. (2006)Foundations of Marketing: , London: Mc-Graw-Hill Johnson & Johnson (2011) .Fourth-Quarter and Full-Year Results | Johnson & Johnson†. Retrieved from http://www.Jnj.com. on May 18, 2014. MoneyNews (2006) â€Å"Johnson & Johnson to Buy Pfizer Unit†. Retreived from www.moneynew.com on May 22, 2014. Trinity Biotech (2007) Trinity Biotech Annual Report Plc [online] Retrieved fromhttp://www.financialregulator.ie/data/in_mark_annurepfiles/Trinity%20Biotech%202007.pdf on 22nd May 2014.

The Impact Of Technology In Education - 1037 Words

In my experience, doing research away from Caltech allows for students to learn how research is done at other institutions while gaining a new perspective on another part of the world. In the summer of 2017, I worked under the supervision of Dr. Franz Kaertner and Dr. Phillip Keathley at MIT in the Optics and Quantum Electronics group. I was introduced to optoelectronic devices and optical-field-controlled emission of electrons. During the ten weeks of my SURF, we made significant progress on the problem of determining if the emission was through field-dependent tunneling. However, to show field-dependency, we needed very fine intensity control. We tackled this problem of fine intensity control in the first half of my SURF using an Arduino†¦show more content†¦In addition, my research in Boston was faster-paced than any research I had done before. I believe that the change of pace increased my productivity in the lab, as I had to work hard to meet certain milestones every we ek. Through this experience, I gained a better understanding of what kind of research environment I perform best in. My time in Boston confirmed my interest in continuing to do research while giving me a background in optoelectronic devices. I hope to pursue a PhD after graduating from Caltech, and I believe that my SURF will be an invaluable asset for any future research. I was also given the opportunity to explore a city I had never seen before. I saw baseball games, concerts, and fireworks, and on top of having ten productive weeks of research, I was lucky enough to simultaneously spend ten fulfilling and eventful weeks in a wonderful city. If selected for the University of Tokyo summer program, I would like to continue my research of optoelectronic devices with Dr. Yoshiaki Nakano. Dr. Nakano’s work involves studying photonic integrated circuits to create useful devices with applications in optical communications, medical imaging, and optical quantum computing. This research is in a field very similar to that of the lab I worked in at MIT. However, compared to my group at MIT, Dr. Nakano’s work is more geared towards practical applications and utilizing photonic circuits to create devices. Working in Dr. Nakano’s labShow MoreRelatedImpact of Technology on Education1146 Words   |  5 Pages------------------------------------------------- Positive Impact of Technology on Education Technology plays a very important role in the field of education, especially in this 21st century. In fact, computer technology has become easier for teachers to transfer knowledge and for students to obtain it. The use of technology has made the process of teaching and learning more convenient. Talking in a positive sense, the impact of technology on education has been extraordinary. 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From one room school houses, segregated schools, to public and private schools, forms of education and how we receive it are always changing. In the past decade, technology has become a large part of education and schooling. Views on types of schooling and education are changing rapidly. Videos and articles can be found all over the Internet on basically any subject you can think of. Much of todayâ €™s schooling is done through online classesRead MoreTechnology And Its Impact On Education1134 Words   |  5 Pagesfact that United States of America’s education program is a far stretch from futuristic in most districts; application of technology has undoubtedly showed itself to be a critical factor in most high performing schools. Technology not only improves the learning environment to better fit the student, but also offers previously inaccessible learning material to students. If seen as an investment by the schools for the benefit of the students, private technology assigned to each student would betterRead MoreImpact Of Technology On Education1404 Words   |  6 PagesWith the great advances in technology, one can accomplish many great feats, be it Virtual Reality, a backpack desktop computer and even smart watches. However, technology has influenced many other parts of our world including education. How has technology influenced education? How do the pupils re ceive an education? How does technology play a viable role in this process? I will specifically be focusing on how education in South Africa is affected by technology. Technology has played a valuable role

William Shakespeare s Julius Caesar - 1119 Words

Antony’s Funeral Oration in Julius Caesar, and Why It Wouldn’t Stand in Court â€Å"Circumstantial evidence is a very tricky thing. It may seem to point very straight to one thing, but if you shift your own point of view a little, you may find it pointing in an equally uncompromising manner to something entirely different.† – Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. What does circumstantial evidence have to do with a speech, you may ask? In a manner of speaking, everything, for the evidence maketh the speech. In William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, a long-winded Marc Antony had the wiles to manipulate a large plebian crowd to mutiny during Caesar’s funeral, using only simple words that were cleverly twisted to prove his point. Before humans learned the concept of applying â€Å"reasonable doubt† to each and every scenario, Antony had a surefire way of winning over the citizens. But as we evolved and have become more knowledgeable, a speech like that wo uld evoke demanding yells of, â€Å"Where’s the proof?† As the gaping holes of logic are made clear in Antony’s funeral oration, we begin to see what sorts of artifices made his speech so cunning; its use of circumstantial evidence applied in the correct context, its largely emotional pleas, and its desperate engagement of the citizens by telling them what they want to hear. In this way, Marc Antony is nothing more than a demagogue, and his respective speech is nothing more than a series of words that subject the plebian crowd to sheer demagoguery.Show MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar1082 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"Et tu, Brutà ©? Then fall Caesar† (III.i 179). The fatal stabs of the conspirators did not kill the all-mighty Julius Caesar, for the sharp butcher of Brutus pierced his heart and condemned his life to cessation. This dramatic, mood changing affair serves as the pivotal platform in William Shakespeare’s, Julius Caesar. It is a compelling novel that recounts the unjust murder of Julius Caesar, an ancient Roman general. Oblivious to this conspicuous foreshadowing, Caesar fails to distinguish his trueRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar Essay1833 Words   |  8 Pages INTRODUCTION The seemingly straightforward simplicity of â€Å"Julius Caesar† has made it a perennial favourite for almost 400 years. Despite its simplicity, almost Roman in nature, the play is rich both dramatically and thematically, and every generation since Shakespeare’s time has been able to identify with some political aspect of the play. The Victorians found a stoic, sympathetic character in Brutus and found Caesar unforgivably weak and tyrannical. As we move into the twenty-first century, audiencesRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar Essay2414 Words   |  10 Pages Christa Kiesling AP Lang Block 1 Mr. Snider 6 Nov. 2016 RA1 William Shakespeare, in his historical play Julius Caesar, makes the characters Brutus and Antony utilize rhetorical strategies in order to win the favour of the Roman people for their own purposes. These two speakers try to convince the audience of different things: where Brutus, who speaks first, was trying to subdue the passions of the mob and use logic to win acceptance for his murderous actions, Antony, who had to follow Brutus, wasRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar760 Words   |  4 Pagespeople of Rome. In Julius Caesar written by William Shakespeare, Brutus and Antony address the people over Caesar’s dead body. The body is brought to the town square shortly after he was murdered by the Senate. Brutus, one of the murderers, appeals to the people’s fear and patriotism. Antony speaks after and puts doubts of the justification of the murder and plays to the people’s hearts. Brutus addresses the crowd by using his reputation to support his reasons for killing Caesar. He starts his speechRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar804 Words   |  4 Pagesthe phenomenal, as well as tyrannical, Roman rulers throughout history, Julius Caesar is by far the most prominent. This fame is due in no small part to William Shakespeare and his play that bears the same name. However, although Caesar is the play’s namesake, the story’s central focus is on Brutus and Caius Cassius and their plot to assassinate Caesar. When discussing Antony’s fate in Act II scene 1 of Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Brutus argues against what he perceives as the unnecessary and brutalRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tragedy Of Julius Caesar919 Words   |  4 Pageschoices that eventually bring about their demise. At first glance, Caesar may appear to be the tragic hero, when the real tragedy actually lies in Brutus’s story in William Shakespeare s p lay The Tragedy of Julius Caesar. One tray a tragic hero must posses is that they are relatable. The play may be named for Caesar, but the reader simply knows more of Brutus and his motives, which help to make his story a tragedy more so than Caesar s. Brutus’ thoughts, actions, and history are made more apparentRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Tragedy Of Julius Caesar1508 Words   |  7 Pages William Shakespeare’s play, â€Å"The Tragedy of Julius Caesar† was mainly based on the conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar. â€Å"Julius Caesar† is a play based on rhetoric and politics. Rhetoric is the science of manipulation. Marcus Brutus, a Senate and a beloved friend of Caesar stood as the face among the conspirators leading the assassination of Julius Caesar. Aristotle said, â€Å"A man doesn’t become a hero until he can see the root of his downfall†. He defined a tragic hero as someone who is highlyRead MoreThemes Of William Shakespeare s Julius Caesar 2063 Words   |  9 Pages Theme, Mood and Conflict in Julius Caesar Savannah Baine â€Å"Come I to speak at Caesar’s funeral. He was my friend, faithful and just to me. But Brutus says that he was too ambitious, and Brutus is an honorable man .† Mark Antony (Act 3,Scene 2,Line 85). â€Å"Julius Caesar† by William Shakespeare, is a classic play depicting the death of Caesar and the chaos that ensues afterwards. One theme in this play is fate vs. free will, the mood is seriousRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar1721 Words   |  7 Pagesusually stems from their own deep rooted hatred of a person and is often in some way personally benefiting to themselves. However, this is not the case of Brutus in Shakespeare’s play, Julius Caesar. Brutus’s plan to murder Julius Caesar does not make him a villainous man but a rather noble one. Despite his plot against Caesar, Brutus’s intentions were always one-hundred percent honorable. The first instance in the play where the reader learns of just how honorable a man Brutus is, is in Act 1, SceneRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar1201 Words   |  5 PagesDellinger English II 4/18/17 Julius Caesar There are many people you may have heard of that lived during 100 B.C.- 10 A.D. in Rome. Some of those people include Marcus Brutus, Cleopatra, Mark Antony, and Julius Caesar. In this paper I will be talking about Julius Caesar. And while doing so I will be talking about his early/personal life, his career, and his assassination. Julius Caesar was born July 12. B.C. as Gaius Julius Caesar, to Aurelia Cotta, and Gaius Julius Caesar. Julius was born with the Neurological

Rhetorical Analysis Of Douglass s The Great Gatsby

Message: Douglass wants his audience, the American public, to know that he earned his freedom. Freedom is something that each of us must look for in order to be truly â€Å"free.† Through the personal experiences of his own life as a slave and his perseverance to become educated, Douglass shows us that it requires persistence and bravery to look for freedom. He also illustrates to the audience that there is no real end in this search for freedom until slavery is fully abolished. Purpose: Douglass wrote this book when slavery was still a normal and acceptable lifestyle in the US. Through his own sufferings as a slave, Douglass wants to show the American people the true injustices of slavery from the perspective of a former slave. That way,†¦show more content†¦Through the texts, Douglass and Jacobs both preserve in their struggle for freedom, both physical and mental. Another text that can be linked to Douglass’ Narrative is the well-known Uncle Tom’s Cabin written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Although it was written by a white female, like Douglass’ Narrative, Uncle Tom’s Cabin shows the harsh reality of slavery with the inclusion of graphic descriptions and images. Both texts were meant for the American public to read, as they were written in the time that slavery was still legal. This text is also similar to John Howard Griffin’s Black Like Me in that the purpose of both texts are to open the perspective of the audi ence, the American public, on a social injustice happening during the time each author wrote his book. Both authors also use personal experiences to show the readers what it is like to experience slavery or discrimination based on skin color. Describe THREE specifics from the text that BEST illustrate the author’s message and/or purpose: Douglass accomplishes his purpose of persuading his audience of the horrors of slavery by detailing instances where he and other slaves were treated with brute. For example, Douglass recounts Mr. Gore whipping Demby, a slave who then escapes in a nearby stream. After Demby does not return after Mr. Gore gives three calls, Mr.

Chapter One Introduction Free Essays

United States of America, with its rich history of immigrants, is a land of diverse cultures and civilizations. Classrooms have students from many different racial and linguistic groups like White Americans, African Americans, Caucasians, Hispanics, Vietnamese etc. According to the various analysis done by the National Centre for Educational Statistics, the academic performance of the minorities continue to be below standard. We will write a custom essay sample on Chapter One: Introduction or any similar topic only for you Order Now Illiteracy or poor schooling background is a common phenomenon not only in rural areas but also in urban areas in many Latin American countries. Although there has been a rise in the number of such students being enrolled in public schools, but as a group they have the lowest level of education and highest dropout rate. Let’s view the present status of the Hispanic students. They make up 15% of the elementary school-age people and will possibly comprise 25% of the total school-age population by the year 2025. It is noticed that over past 20years, their enrollment have risen by 150 %( U.S. Department of Education, 2000). The U.S. Hispanic population is varied in terms of their countries by birth, economic and social status, language skills, family background and education. They have different academic needs as well. They make up 75% of all the students enrolled for limited English proficiency program (LEP), including English as second language program (ESL) and bilingual educational program. As for their academic achievements, the 1996 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) shows that 17 year old Hispanic students were quite below in comparison to other White students in science, mathematics and reading (National Centre of Educational Statistics, 1996). It also brought to light that their drop out rate was very much high as compared to other minority groups and ranked lowest in the comparison of high school completion rate. Furthermore, Baker Hakuta (1998) state that the number of English language learners (ELL) in the U.S. has grown dramatically in the last decade. According to a 1991 national study, over 2,300,000 students in grades K through 12 are English language learners. This number has grown by over 1,000,000 since 1984. The majority of these students are Spanish-speakers (73%), followed by Vietnamese-speakers (3.9%). Because of the overwhelming proportion of ELL students is Spanish speakers, the issue of bilingual education is largely a Latino one. No other language group makes up more than 4% of limited English proficient students. This fact makes education a complicated issue for language minority students with low socioeconomic status. Most educators and school administrators in American classrooms overlook that English language learners with minimal formal schooling have difficulties managing information input, organizing learning material, following verbal and written instructions, and processing large chunks of new language. Thus, the findings of Ramirez (1991) indicate that Latino students who received sustained L1 instruction throughout elementary school have better academic prospects than those who have not received instruction in their first language or those who received instruction only in English. Consequently, first language illiteracy in Spanish speaking students has negative consequences in the United States as it retards economic and social development. According to the 1993 U.S. Census Bureau, many Hispanic children living in the United States are likely to be from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, particularly those whose families have recently arrived and are depending in minimum-wage jobs. Approximately 40% of Hispanic children live in poverty, compared to the 13% of non-Hispanic white children (Holman, 1997). Similarly, data from the 2003 U.S. Census Bureau shows that 58.4% of Hispanic students have completed high school level compared to 85.8% of White and 80.6% of Black population. Eighty percent of ELL are poor and most attend schools where the majority of students also live in poverty and are English language learners. Such schools are poorly maintained due to lack of funds and fail to provide technologically updated class room environment and well qualified teachers. Poverty and socio economic status have many implications for educational achievement on Hispanic students. For example, parents’ income levels and parents’ educational achievement is highly linked to that of their children’s. They belong to families where the parents themselves are not educated, and therefore lay less importance to schooling and education of their children. Inadequate participation by parents in their child’s education has many other reasons too. They have less time to spend with their family due to heavy load of work taken up to make both ends meet and inability to communicate in English themselves Lack of proficiency in English is another important hurdle for Hispanic students. This is assumed to be the major reason why they fail to graduate from the high school. In typical classrooms, Hispanic students fail to understand the course taught due to the inability to understand the medium of instruction. Thus, their performance always remains low and at times such negative educational experience acts as a reason for their early dropouts and absenteeism .There are various programs installed for teaching English as second language (ESL) in schools yet the dropout rate is on a rise. Terrence (1997) says that state and federally funded bilingual education programs reach only a fraction of eligible students. Three quarters of limited English proficient students receive ESL instruction, while only one-third to one-half of these students receives any instruction in their native language. After working with ESL Hispanic students 9-12 grades at Vance High School in Charlotte, NC for two years, I became aware of the academic underachievement some students were experiencing even after being in the same grade in some cases for up to three consecutive years. Even though the teachers, administrators have put in a lot of effort, but their situation doesn’t seem to be improving. This scenario touched me very much and i developed a particular interest in finding out the causes behind their failures in the classroom and the methodologies which could be implemented to improve the situation. My research will examine and analyze in depth the weaknesses these students bring to the classroom based on the causes of their illiteracy. In addition, I will describe the negative effects of illiteracy in relation to the alarming increase of the growth of Hispanics in the U.S. It is worthwhile to cite Huntley (1992) as she says, â€Å"The problem of illiteracy seems to be increasing and programs to remedy that situation are still inadequate.† Spanish speaking students are not well versed in their native language. Most of the programs already being used don’t stress the importance on reducing first language illiteracy. This in turn has a great influence in learning English as a second language. Illiteracy in the first language causes hurdles in learning a second language. Polishing the first language itself will support and ease the process of learning a second language. There are basically four types of literacy in the first language (L1), which has an impact in English learning (Huntley, 1992). These include literate learners, semi-literate learners, non-literate learners and pre-literate learners. Such kind of L1 literacy backgrounds are usually overlooked by teachers. This research explains the different levels or types of illiteracy in detail and their relative importance in learning English as a Second language for Spanish speaking students. One can say that learning a second language is hard, but it is even harder when there is a lack of literacy skills in the first language. McGee (1978) says, â€Å"We acknowledge that being an adult learner is difficult, that being an adult second language learner is even more difficult, and that being a pre-literate adult second language learner must be nothing short of a painful situation.† Difficulties arising in an individuals’ second language learning cannot be properly understood without simultaneous attention to the socio linguistic and socio cultural framework within which learning a second language is occurring. Another major cause of illiteracy in Hispanic students in the United States is attributed to the rate of dropout; this document includes an analysis of a study done by Crawford Egemba (2003), about the factors that contribute to abandon school on Hispanic students of grades 9-12. They based their analysis on demographic factors, academic ability, family background, school experiences and social influence factors. The variables in this research include academic ability, family socioeconomic status, student gender, employment status, repeating a grade, citizenship status, English proficiency, truancy, urbanicity, gender, friends’ and siblings’ status, substance use, and pregnancy/fatherhood. It is also noticed that the drop out students eventually take part in criminal activities. According to Cassel (2003), â€Å" Today in America one million of the two million prison inmates are high school dropout students and the primary reason for their dropping out of school is a general lack of personal development† (p. 1). This shows how much of a serious issue this ESL drop out learners pose. In addition, this part describes the alarming statistics of Hispanic youth as the fastest growing minority segment in America. It is since 1960s, that many researches have been done to identify the main causes behind such a high drop out rate of Hispanic students. The researches were based on the logic that once the core issue is identified, it would become lot easier to devise measures to resolve it. This theory was termed as deficit theory and has guided much work in this field. The theory assumed that the cultural differences were a reason behind their academic failures. However, in 1970s the trend shifted and many more reasons were highlighted and worked upon. Many researches have been carried out to see what will prove helpful in improving this scenario. Most of the educators believe that such educational crisis can be dealt with the help of better teachers and teaching methods. My research explores the different methodologies to teach preliterate or limited formal schooling ESL Spanish speaking students grades 9-12. Although there are several programs designed to teach English as a Second Language, they mostly promote the use of English as a media of instruction. Few programs neither consider the capacity for literacy in the students’ first language nor promote the study of the student’s native language. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account that English language learners have different literacy levels and come from a diverse socioeconomic background. The research brings to light what could be effective for improving the situation. It will explain how teachers should be educated about the need and use of various teaching tools, seeing which helps the learning better. Curriculum should be designed in a way that provides equal opportunity for such minority students to read and write. It explains how and why the teachers should understand the cultural difference, and use it positively while imparting education. More resources and effective language teaching practices should be adopted for the students who have limited knowledge of English language. It will prove how the adoption of technologically updated teaching methods may go long way in facilitating teacher in meeting the special learning requirements of such students. This includes the usage of visual aids, computers and multimedia, recorders, audio tapes and language masters while teaching students. It is also important that primary or native language is used for the purpose of instructions. Such method, if adopted, would help in concept development and better understanding. It is only through their primary language that the students will effectively learn how to read and write well. This method will also ensure that students don’t fall behind academically while they learn English. For this the teachers themselves have to be fluent and bilingual. Not only this, they also need to be certified to teach ESL students. Only the possession of certificates like BCC (Bilingual Certificate of Competence) or B.-C.L.A.D. (Bilingual-Cross-Cultural, Language and Academic Development Certificate) makes them eligible to teach such students. Teachers with other certificates like L.D.S. can team up with fully certified bilingual teachers to help such students. Overall, this study underscores the importance of L1 instruction as a crucial tool for illiterate Spanish-speaking students in U.S. schools and the need to master literacy skills in their native language before they acquire a second language in order to achieve academically in the mainstream classroom.   According to Cummins (1981), the capacity for literacy in the first language affects in a dramatic fashion the ability to acquire a second language because metacognitive skills are transferred across languages. For the purpose of this research, I present the two main methodologies Bilingual Education and English-Only instruction and their effects in learning a second language being a preliterate in the native language. In bilingual classrooms, interaction is split between the primary language and English language, whereas, in English-only classes English is the only medium of instructions. Various studies have proved that students in such bilingual classrooms are at various academic and linguistic benefits as opposed to the other method. Especially if such method is used for students in pre-school and lower grade levels. This paper discusses in depth the advantages and disadvantages of both methods of instruction. Eventually, my study shows that good bilingual programs should be designed for illiterate ESL learners so as to provide literacy in native language first, so that the input they provide in the target language is comprehensible for them. Being a very controversial topic, its importance deserves more research to determine the effectiveness of each methodology, considering all the variables and the students’ needs. It also shows that Transitional programs (where primary instruction decreases the more English students learn) or Developmental programs (where primary language instruction continues throughout the entire study program) can be used according to the requirement of the students. This research also shows that parental involvement in a child’s education is of utmost importance. This can be done by meeting parents regularly to discuss the academic progress and performance of their child. Not only this, they should also be convinced to encourage their children for higher studies. This will help in reducing the premature dropouts and may also guarantee higher attainment of education. It was proved through various researched how the lack of involvement was a reason behind early drop outs of such students. Thus, if parents become more aware about their role as their child’s partner in learning, they would themselves become the first teachers of their children. It also shows how government can play their role in improving the situation. It can help in establishing special schools for Hispanics, where the fee structure is affordable. Monetary and technological funds can be provided to such schools. Teaching program there should be designed with special care to address the needs and issues of students. At such schools, proper career guidance should be provided and scholarship programs should be introduced. Moreover, government should allocate more funds for the continued research in this area so that better methodologies can be formulated. But it should be remembered that the success of all of these programs depends upon their proper implementation. Not only this, they need to be monitored and upgraded as and when required. Then only can they help in increasing academic achievements of Hispanic ESL students. Improvement in their situation will allow them to make meaningful contribution towards the society. It will prove helpful in social interaction and boost up their confidence. Not only this, better education would open many earning opportunities for them with which they can improve their economic status. English is an official language through out the nation, and having a good command over it means better position to work in. Moreover, know how of another language brings along with it many intrinsic advantages. Various changes come within one’s personality. It gives a better insight to life, brings about tolerance for different life styles, and gives a better ability to express  well. It provides ability to comprehend other cultures. Second-language skills help in providing maximum enjoyment while traveling as well. However, there have been researchers and educationalists have pointed out few drawbacks of bilingualism. But they in no way outstrip its benefits. Being literate doesn’t only mean to possess the ability to read, write, listen and speak. But it means doing all this to a certain adequate level. Certain educationalists go as far as including the abilities to face and solve daily problems and make some contribution towards the society as important requisites of being a literate person.   Standard for what actually is literacy vary from society to society. Literacy rate determines the standard of living and progression of any state. Thus, it is important for all states to address the educational needs and issues of its minorities so that they add up to the success of the nation. References: National Center for Educational Statistics. (1996). NAEP 1996 long-term summary. Washington, DC. Alexander, D., Heaviside, S., Farris, E. (1999). Status of education reform in public elementary and secondary schools: Teachers’ perspectives. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Huntley, H. S. (1992). The new illiteracy: A study of the pedagogic principles of teaching English as a second language to nonliterate adults. Unpublished manuscript. (EDRS No. ED356685). Terrence, G. W. (1997). Myths about language diversity and literacy in the United States, SuDoc ED. Miriam, B., Joy, P. (Feb, 2003) Reading and Adult English Language Learners: The role of first Language, National Centre for ESL Literacy Education. Grabe, W., Stoller, F. L. (2002).Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, England: Pearson Education. Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., Adams, R. (2003). Reading and adult English language learners: A review of the research. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Fillmore, L.W. and Snow, C.E. (2000). â€Å"What teachers need to know about language.† U.S. Department of Education: Educational Research and Improvement. ERIC Digest No. ED-99-CO-0008 Birch, B. M. (2002). English L2 reading: Getting to the bottom. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. How to cite Chapter One: Introduction, Essay examples

Reflective Essay On Project Management Managers And Teams

Question: Describe about the Reflective Essay on Project Management for Managers and Teams. Answer: Professional guidance in management of project is important for project managers and teams. The learning of project management of body of knowledge, and planning process group in class provides proper guidelines and principles that can be utilized by project teams(Cleland, 2013). I was able to learn best practices and code of ethics to guide project professionals. The knowledgeable areas and processes learnt covered management of scope, time, cost, quality, resources, communication, risk and procurement(PMI., 2013). I learnt project integration management learning process by understanding various approaches used to manage projects. I learnt coming up with a project management plan a documentation showing activities to be performed to achieve intended objectives(Wysocki, 2014). The approaches I learnt are based on methodologies employed for different projects. For example the agile project management (iterative) which can be employed in computer related projects. In addition I was able to learn from planning process group reasons why people plan, failures of optimistic and pessimistic planning(Larson, 2011). One knowledgeable area for a project manager is time management. I was able to sequence and estimate time for various activities by developing and controlling them(PMI., 2013). I leant both work breakdown structure and critical path method as scheduling tools for time. Work breakdown structure which involves dividing projects into sub projects, tasks, subtasks, and work packages by use of codes, while critical path method is the longest path showing time to accomplish activities based on probable time after consideration of optimistic and pessimistic times. The learning process provided me good insights of how resources can be estimated and procured. I learnt how to employ analogous and parametric estimation in planning and resource costing. One critical component in implementation is sourcing of resources for the project. The learning process provided me a clear knowledge on how procurement planning is done from solicitation, selection, contract awarding to contract closeout(Wysocki, 2014). I was able to learn how human resources are acquired and developed. The leadership styles include: democratic (allows equal decision making), autocratic (project manager makes decision alone), and participative (everyone is involved in activities). Leadership is critical in project performance, team development and motivation of team members. The exposure to leadership styles has helped me choose the best style to employ in management of projects. Other skills I learnt included: the use of risk registers indicating how risks can be identified, analyzed response and monitored, the use of communication plans showing channel and mode of communication. Lastly I learnt how quality management can be maintained, assured and controlled. The extra skills learnt help management of project effectively(Larson, 2011). In conclusion, other process found difficult to comprehend and understand they include cost estimation (employing techniques of estimations); critical path method analysis (calculations of different times and floats). I did consult with other students who had understood the topics. My strength included use of project theoretical concepts and principles, while my limitation was how to make analysis and computations involving arithmetics and mathematics in project management. References Cleland, D. A. (2013). Project management handbook. New York, United States: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Larson, E. A. (2011). Project management: the managerial process . New York: Mc Graw Hill. PMI. (2013). A guide to project management body of knowledge . Newtown Square: PA: PMI. Wysocki, R. (2014). Effective project management . Indianapolis: John Wiley Sons.